Module 18 – Psychological Perspectives on Behaviour
Estimated Time: 25 minutes
Student Aims:
· To learn the psychological perspectives on behaviour
· To learn the differences and similarities between the perspectives
· To identify how to apply the perspectives in the classroom
· To understand how different intervention methods apply to specific perspectives
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18.1 Introduction
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Children who exhibit behavioural, emotional and social difficulties often present specific challenges in the classroom.
It is the teachers’ role to help manage these issues by limiting negative behaviour that might disrupt the classroom environment. However, limiting this behaviour can be difficult because the catalysts for the behaviour may be varied and unknown to both the pupil and the teacher.
Most psychiatrists agree that the best way to manage inappropriate behaviour in children with these difficulties is to identify the root cause of these behaviours. The idea is that if you can find the underlying cause, whether it is conscious or unconscious, you are better prepared to offer an effective intervention.
Modern psychology is a broad and diverse field that encompasses a variety of perspectives and approaches. Some of the psychological perspectives on behaviour include: psychodynamic, behaviourist, cognitive, humanistic, ecological, social learning and biological.
Fact
The most recent government statistics show that in 2022/23, there were more than 229,700 pupils with an identified SEMH (Social, Emotional and Mental Health) need in England
Source: gov.uk
18.2 Psychodynamic Perspective
The psychodynamic perspective on behaviour has its roots in Sigmund Freud’s early work, particularly his writing on the unconscious mind.
The basic premise of this perspective revolves around the belief that human behaviour is controlled by subconscious feelings, which are formed during the person’s earliest life experiences. This perspective believes that problem behaviours in children are really tangible symptoms of conflicts that are internalised and primarily invisible.
These issues may have come from difficult relationships with those in the role of a carer or from early trauma. Because children experienced these traumas early and do not have the ability to process their challenging feelings, they instead express their discontent through behavioural means.
The source of these feelings is often buried very deeply and is protected by a myriad of defence mechanisms that may be hard for the child or their carers to identify. Thus, when asked, children may not be able to explain the source of their behaviour.
This perspective is facilitated by psychodynamic assessment. These assessments are performed by psychoanalytic counsellors and psychiatrists using psychiatric techniques to attempt to unmask or provide insight into these internalised conflicts. The test utilises the response of the pupil for making inferences regarding their motives for challenging behaviour.
The perspective hosts its own interventions, which are based on the results of the assessment. One intervention includes building up the pupils’ inner resources so that they can let go of the defence mechanisms that guard the trauma, including defensive behaviours. The intervention may also include building supportive relationships with significant and understanding adults. These relationships may provide insights into trauma and help reinforce the pupil’s sense of security so that they can let go of the challenging behaviours.
Another intervention includes encouraging the child to talk about their feelings within an environment conducive to talking about the difficult or painful subject matter. These environments will also allow the pupils to express themselves through cartoons, storytelling, drama and play.
When applying interventions with this perspective, it is essential that teachers are aware that some pupils whose care has suffered in their early years may have attachment issues and anxiety. These unconscious behaviours are essential to consider before implementing interventions.
18.3 Behaviourist Perspective
The behaviourist perspective began in America in the early 20th century and was built on the work of Watson, Skinner, and Thorndike.
The primary principle comes from Thorndike’s work “Law of Effect”. It suggests that behaviours leading to satisfaction are strong, while behaviour that is often ignored or does not satisfy the child is weak. The theory suggests that all human behaviour is learned; thus, it can be modified by positive reinforcement and sanctions.
This theory is a reaction to Freudian psychoanalysis and the Viennese Freudian School. It was an attempt to present psychology as a scientific method. To support this attempt, the behaviourist perspective requires an assessment that is designed to be based on objective experimentation. In doing so, theorists rid themselves of all types of exploration of internalisation because introspective measures are problematic; they cannot be easily measured and therefore cannot be regarded as scientific.
Using this assessment in a school setting requires professional and systematic observations of both the pre-conditions and the consequences of the behaviour. All of the information is recorded on a checklist. The most common checklist is the ABC (antecedent, behaviour, consequences) model.
The ABC Model:
· Antecedents (A) – events or stimuli that directly precede the behaviour
· Behaviour (B) – the specific action or behaviour being studied
· Consequences (C) – what happens directly following the behaviour
This forms the basis of an initial assessment and serves as a baseline of activity that is reassessed after the intervention.
The goal of the approach is to prevent inaccurate evaluations that may be biased. Again, this perspective favours the outcome of cold, hard facts. Interventions are formed after the assessment is complete.
The primary focus is on behaviour modification programmes that attempt to provide positive reinforcements for positive behaviours and offer negative results for behaviours that are inappropriate. Using reinforcement like a reward system and/or set consequences can be used to accelerate positive behaviours and minimise challenging ones.
To be used successfully, the system must use a clear structure that pupils can understand, work toward, and stick to.
For example, teachers can set up a system where students must satisfy criteria in order to receive a set reward. These criteria might be arriving on time, submitting homework according to schedule or contributing positively to the classroom. When this system is clear, pupils will be aware of the criteria required for success and they will be able to see tangible results for their work. This also serves to reinforce positive behaviours.
Involving parents in this system helps younger children. When a plan is supported both in the classroom and at home, pupils will see more structure and become more aware of behavioural expectations in different settings.
Teachers can also explore the environment to consider whether the behaviour is caused by a catalyst within the environment. The environment in this context includes the classroom setting, peer relationships and the methods of teaching and learning used during class time.
The teacher’s recognition of the relationship between pupils and the environment is important for the success of this strategy and directly affects their ability to positively influence the dynamic between pupil and environment.
There are criticisms of this approach. The primary concern regarding the behaviourist perspective is that it focuses too heavily on external stimuli and ignores the individual pupil’s personality and patterns. Thus, some consider that this approach works only in the short term.
18.4 Cognitive Perspective
The cognitive perspective is built around the idea that it is individual cognitive processes, like interpretation, reasoning and understanding that provide the most influence over human behaviour.
The perspective tries to explore why the same stimulus will more often than not produce a different response in different individuals.
In schools, the primary influences are considered to be:
· The pupils’ views of themselves
· The pupils’ understanding of their own behaviours and their understanding of how their behaviour affects other pupils and school staff
· The pupils’ views of who governs their behaviour
· The pupils’ goals for their behaviour
The idea is that problem behaviours arise when pupils misconstrue what is happening around them. Because of this misunderstanding, they behave inappropriately for the context, although it makes sense and seems appropriate to them. The belief is that children’s behaviours can be changed if their perspectives are understood, adapted and reinforced.
The cognitive perspective is different from the psychodynamic perspective because the cognitive perspective does not refer to the unconscious. On the contrary, it refers to cognitive processes about which humans are aware. The primary processes involve the conscious abilities of reasoning and thinking.
It is also different from the behavioural perspective because even though the processes are conscious, these things are still difficult to measure in a quantifiable manner.
The cognitive perspective utilises assessments like self-reporting and self-monitoring interviews with psychiatric professionals. The assessment is designed to help pupils discuss and describe their views of their thoughts and behaviours.
The goal of the assessment is to see the behaviour and thoughts from the point of view of the pupil. When that point of view is established, the school can then clarify or challenge the misconceptions that are associated with the child’s behaviour. This can be achieved through interventions like anger management programmes.
An anger management programme works to give a child more control over their behaviour by helping them see that they are reacting to a stimulus. It helps them recognise their feelings and the associated stimulus, and provides them with a choice of alternative behaviours when they encounter the trigger.
These strategies are important for the pupils to be able to self-regulate their behaviour and become more aware of what behaviour is good and what behaviour is negative. This will be internalised more deeply because they are recognising the behaviour in themselves rather than hearing about the behaviour from someone else.
18.5 Humanistic Perspective
The humanistic perspective was developed based on the work of Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.
The movement is sometimes referred to as ‘third force psychology’ because it relies on psychoanalysis, behaviourism and humanistic philosophies.
The humanistic perspective includes a hierarchy of human needs developed by Maslow. The five-tier model is in pyramid form and shows the highest priority needs at the bottom – things we need in order to survive – working its way up to the needs we desire and are important for our wellbeing.
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs are:
· Self-actualisation
· Esteem needs
· Love and belonging
· Safety needs
· Physiological needs
The behaviourist perspective believes that the only motivation for human behaviour is the attempt to experience positive reinforcement. However, humanists believe that there are other drivers that they consider to be crucial for human development. These drivers include the need for personal growth, the need for self-esteem and the need to be accepted or belong to a social group.
This hierarchy is important to note because it emphasises the whole person, rather than only the psyche, environment or behaviour. Maslow said that the drive for self-actualisation in children with behavioural problems often goes unrecognised. This is because these children may be missing out on one of the previous needs. Missing out on one need prevents forward development or an attempt to reach self-actualisation.
One way that teachers can use humanistic interventions is by emphasising their own humanity. They can appeal to their pupils’ nature to create an equal and positive relationship. This relationship can serve as holistic therapy for bad behaviours by removing some of the motivation for that behaviour.
Active listening is also important in this perspective. Teachers should demonstrate active listening with the pupil by acknowledging their statements and asking the appropriate follow-up questions to let the child know that they have been heard and understood.
18.6 Ecosystemic Perspective
The ecosystemic perspective was built on the model of the ecosystem. In the ecosystem, even a small change can bring about changes elsewhere in the ecosystem.
For example, when one animal becomes extinct, other animals who directly or indirectly relied on it will often suffer in some manner.
This perspective is based on the works of Ludwig von Bertalanffy and has been applied to classrooms and schools since the 1990s.
The perspective maintains the idea that behaviour is not born of an individual, but through different interactional processes. Thus, problem behaviour is not simply the product of the pupil acting out; it is a product of social interaction with someone else. In this case, problem behaviour is not a catalyst or an effect on its own, but part of a chain of actions and reactions that is cyclical in nature.
The interactions may take place between pupils, teachers, and families, and can even be interactions with the pupil themselves. The perspective maintains that the context of this interaction is important because the context can result in a pattern of interaction that is negative and circular and leads to worse behaviour. Therefore, the approach cannot simply focus on the individuals in the relationship but needs to focus on the context as well.
Assessments in this perspective require teachers to start by examining their interpretations of their interactions with pupils, parents and other teachers. They need to think about these interpretations within a particular context, such as in the classroom or in the playground.
Interventions associated with the ecosystemic perspective each admit that interpretations of the same behaviour may be different, but both can be equally valid. Then, the teacher and the pupil must sit down and look for a more positive interpretation of the behaviour. They can then reframe the behaviour within the context and put a stop to the cyclical chain of negative behaviours and reactions.
Reframing is required for both the teacher and the pupil. Both need to see the problem behaviour positively for the intervention to have merit. One way to do this is to describe the behaviour in neutral terms first, ensuring these terms are observable. Then, it is often easier to identify the positive aspects of the scenario which can form the basis of a new, positive and actionable perspective.
18.7 Social Learning Perspective
The social learning theory suggests that a pupil’s behaviour is directly influenced by their observations of the actions of their peers and others.
Social learning is a combination of cognitive theory and behavioural theory. The idea is that there are four requirements for humans to learn. The first is the observation of the environment. The second and third – retention and reproduction – are both cognitive processes. The fourth requirement is motivation, which is both environmental and cognitive.
The theory was created by Albert Bandura and supported by a psychological experiment whereby young children observed adults’ behaviours towards a doll. Children who observed violent behaviour tended to behave violently toward the doll, while children who observed positive behaviour acted accordingly.
One intervention is to place pupils who struggle with appropriate behaviour in a setting with pupils who consistently model good behaviour and social skills. This works particularly well in small groups. However, this requires monitoring to avoid the pupil with poor behaviour from affecting the learning of the model pupils. It is also important not to place the pupil experiencing the intervention with the same pupils every time. This can become a burden on the other pupils if it is used too frequently.
18.8 Biological Perspective
The biological perspective is a belief that a child’s behaviour is mostly the result of biochemical processes or biological issues.
It is often used to look at how physical child abuse might affect adulthood behaviour, how head trauma plays a role in behaviour, and whether genetics plays any role in behaviour.
The biological perspective is also used to examine how human behaviour compares to other species. It is most often used to compare the behaviour of humans and other mammals such as chimpanzees. This approach is useful when studying the link between genetics and behaviour because it helps support the idea that the same behaviours are exhibited not by species but by genes.
This method is also used to consider how chemicals affect behaviour. This approach considers the natural chemicals and hormones found within the body and the synthetic chemicals that enter the body through medications or food. This research is the foundation of the idea that a chemical imbalance in the body or brain can have an impact on mood. The strength of this approach is that it is another scientific approach that can be measured as part of a process. However, the perspective is also limited because it disregards the environment and individuality.
When approaching a pupil from the biological perspective, there are generally consultations with health professionals. These meetings may result in the doctor prescribing medication for the child. When diagnosed correctly, practical therapies like medication tend to be reliable in regulating behaviours.
18.9 A Teacher’s Role in Behavioural Perspectives
The relationship between the pupil and the teacher is one of the most important things to consider when putting together an intervention for behavioural problems in the mainstream classroom.
A positive relationship between the pupil and teacher is essential because it offsets any increased risk of challenging behaviour.
Common characteristics to look for in positive relationships
A relationship where the two greet each other by name
Teachers who are actively showing an interest in the pupil’s interests, sharing positive feedback and demonstrating respect for pupils, generally have a positive relationship with the pupil. These factors can have a profound impact on the efficacy of the intervention because they will provide motivation for the pupil to participate in the intervention.
Teachers are closely considering their role in the classroom.
Interventions work well in classrooms where the teacher serves as a facilitator and tries to guide pupil behaviour rather than control it. This creates a classroom that is diplomatic in nature and allows pupils to make their own decisions. It also serves to foster mutual respect between the teacher and pupils and between individual pupils.
Positive relationships are fostered in this kind of environment and these relationships alone serve as powerful tools in interventions.
These relationships can transcend the whole classroom
In an ideal scenario, these kinds of relationships will be fostered school-wide. This can be done by promoting the awareness of both oneself and others and promoting the development of effective interactions via a solution-focused environment. This can be facilitated through citizenship classes, extra-curricular activities, curriculum content, school councils and small group sessions.
Conclusion
There are a variety of perspectives to consider when examining pupil behaviour in the classroom. It is important to remember that every perspective has merit but that not all perspectives will be right for all pupils.
It is important for educators to ensure that they are contributing to the conversation by forming a positive relationship with the pupils. This helps prevent incorrect conclusions and lends support to the success of interventions.
In the next module, we discuss how to understand and manage anger.
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