Module 10 – Understanding and Addressing Difficulties in Cognition and Learning
Estimated Time: 25 minutes
Student Aims
· To understand the concept of cognitive development and have a basic understanding of the different stages
· To be able to apply your knowledge of cognition to the special educational needs environment, and assess the relationship between the two
· To identify the different types of cognitive disabilities, and how you can accommodate them in the classroom
· To understand the teaching strategies that can be applied in the classroom
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10.1 Introduction
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Cognitive abilities are as fascinating as the brain.
The brain can reteach itself many things, and when given the right opportunities and tools in a learning environment, cognitive disabilities can often be overcome.
In this module, you will be introduced to cognitive psychology and its importance in the lives of students who have cognitive disorders. You will learn about the different types of cognitive disorders and the strategies that you can incorporate into your classroom to help your students.
10.2 Understanding Cognition
Cognition is the term used to describe the mental action responsible for our ability to process, understand and make sense of knowledge.
Remembering, knowing, thinking, making judgements, retaining information and problem-solving are all abilities that are included within this term. However, cognition is also responsible for a wide range of processes involving how we sense and perceive the world around us.
Cognition takes the information that your senses gather and transforms it into signals that your brain can understand and react to. At the same time, cognition reduces the amount of sensory information around you. It can help you tune out noise, ignore smells, and become less aware of particular sensations. In other words, it is responsible for desensitisation, which is when your body becomes unreceptive to a constant or persistent stimulus.
For example, you may be in your kitchen cooking food and smell the mixture at the start, but after a while, the only way you can smell what is cooking is if you put your nose right up to the mixture, whereas someone could walk into your house and say, “Wow, it smells great in here! What are you cooking?”
Another example of desensitisation is when you are no longer aware of a constant noise that is surrounding your environment – like an air conditioner or a heater.
The reason for desensitisation, or so it is theorised, is your brain’s ability to conserve energy and not overwhelm your senses. Essentially, it allows you to focus on one specific task and become an effective contributor to your environment, rather than being so consumed by the way you perceive your surroundings that you are unable to do any task fully and effectively.
Cognition also encompasses memory storage and information retrieval – what you remember, why, and how, are all topics of interest in cognitive psychology. Memories, both short-term and long-term, are complex processes that help you to gather and store information from 20 seconds to decades. Memory is a process that can be incredibly strong or fickle, depending on the person. Sometimes, people who do not remember well can fill in the gaps in their memory with false information, which then creates false memories.
Here’s an experiment. Try to remember what your earliest memory is. How many years ago was it? Think about the storyline or context. Do you think it is accurate? Try to find someone involved in the memory and compare the events of a time you both remember – this will show you how accurate (or inaccurate) your long-term memory is.
Cognition refers to how our mental processes and thoughts influence our actions. It is a function that allows us to use the information we obtain from the world, from understanding language to making judgements on how this world of ours really is and how it works. Cognition controls how we interact with and behave within our surrounding environment.
Cognitive Development
Cognitive development is an area of neuroscience that explores the development of cognition from birth until adulthood. The field recognises that there are a number of stages that the brain goes through, or develops into, throughout our lifetime.
One of the most influential figures in this field of study is Jean Piaget. He was a 19th-century psychologist who proposed that there were four stages of development throughout a child’s life.
While many of his theories have since been challenged, the foundations and general proposals that there are cognitive stages and development have now created the basis of the science.
Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development are:
1. Sensorimotor Stage – birth to 2 years old – infants learn to use their senses and motor skills to interact with their environment.
2. Preoperational Stage – 2 to 7 years old – children learn to use symbols and language to represent objects and ideas.
3. Concrete Operational Stage – 7 to 11 years old – children develop the ability to think logically and solve problems.
4. Formal Operational Stage – age 12 and up – adolescents and adults gain the ability to think abstractly and critically.
As discussed, Piaget is now only seen as a founding father of the science, and very few of his theories are used to inform practice at present. However, what his theories do allude to is that humans undergo brain development as they age, in which their perceptions of reality change, and their mental skills are augmented. In a sense, the concept of “stages” is still relevant today, especially when working in the special educational needs area.
By identifying a person’s cognitive stage, it is easier to tailor information to them in a more understandable and comprehensive manner.
According to Piaget’s theory, development is universal and cultural differences should have no effect on the sequence of stages. This is seen as a major criticism of Piaget’s theory and led psychologist Lev Vygotsky to the development of his sociocultural theory. This theory places the roles of culture, social interaction and formal instruction at the centre of thinking and learning. Vygotsky believed that culture shapes cognitive development by determining the content and the process by which a child will access information regarding the world.
An example of this is given by Woolfolk et al (2008) of Brazilian street children who do not go to school and alternatively sell sweets. They acquire sophisticated mathematical skills in their dealings with wholesalers, buyers and sellers in order to make a profit.
Vygotsky believed that children gain significant knowledge from conceptual tools transferred to them by those who are more intellectually advanced. This may come in the form of parents, same-age peers or teachers.
A major concept of learning from Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory is the zone of proximal development (ZPD). Snowman & Biehler (2006) compare the learning instruction to a magnet. It is aimed slightly ahead of the SEN student’s ability level at the present time, and it will pull them along to master the things they cannot learn individually.
Slavin (2006) explains that with the assistance of more intellectual peers or teachers, through conversation and collaborative work, the individual can achieve higher mental functioning and master a task that is not yet learned. However, the teacher must assess the teachable moment, which is the point of readiness for the SEN student to learn a new concept.
Another important concept for the support of children with learning disabilities comes from the notion of Vygotsky’s social learning. Bruner (1983) believes that scaffolding, i.e. providing a great deal of support to the child with special needs during the early part of the task whilst gradually transferring more responsibility to the child, can help him/her reach a higher level of cognitive development. Slavin (2006) agrees that this scaffolding, in the form of hints or leading questions, can help the child with special needs transverse their ZPD.
Examples of scaffolding techniques for teachers include questioning, labels, feedback, prompts and modelling.
Tappin (1998) introduced a model to aid teachers to carry out optimum scaffolding to support a special needs student to move through his/her ZPD. In model academic behaviours, the children will imitate the desired behaviour from peers, and this will stimulate the child with special needs to act this way independently. By creating a dialogue with the child, a commitment is made between teacher and student to facilitate an honest and equal relationship.
Through practising tasks, the child comprehends skills learned and observed from others. Confirmation and reassurance that the child is completing a task accurately will bring out their best. With help and assistance, the child is likely to be successful in the task.
Through studying the theories of cognitive theorists, you will find extremely useful techniques to support the education of SEN students in mainstream schools.
You will see that cognitive theorists have made a major contribution to the following:
· the development and facilitated adaptation of schemes (or of individual schemes for some)
· the assessment of stages of cognitive development
· the sociocultural theory and the concepts of ZPD and scaffolding
10.3 Cognition and Special Educational Needs
An awareness of the role and theories surrounding cognition is an essential building block in understanding and working with people who have special educational needs.
The most important thing that you must be able to recognise is where a student is in relation to their cognition and ability. What stage of development is the person at? You do not need to pick one of Piaget’s stages in order to create this understanding. Rather, you should be able to identify such things as reading level, maths level, and the cognitive processes that are used by the individual to learn aspects of the curriculum.
You must consider, however, that all students with special needs will have strengths as well as weaknesses, and it is important to build on those strengths.
By understanding the different types of special needs, you will become better equipped to deal with the needs of those pupils. Whether the student has autism, ADHD or another condition, knowing the characteristics and the effects on the student’s cognition is an essential element in assisting a child with special educational needs.
10.4 Types of Cognitive Difficulties
Cognitive difficulties vary, and no two are the same.
These difficulties can affect a student’s ability to learn, and the effectiveness and depth that the student can explore and understand the lessons that you deliver. They can affect different parts of the brain and the abilities it provides, as well as manifest and appear in unique ways.
The important thing is not to make assumptions about a student’s ability based only on their condition or learning difficulty.
Some of the learning difficulties and conditions that you may need to support in the classroom include:
Severe Learning Difficulties (SLD)
A student with a severe learning difficulty will have significant cognitive and intellectual impairments, which, in turn, will have a large effect on their ability to engage in the school curriculum. Generally, these students will attend a special school or a special needs department with a different curriculum within the school.
Students with severe learning difficulties will require support in every area of the curriculum. They will be taught social skills, independence and self-help.
Typical signs of a student with a severe learning difficulty include a serious hindrance of developmental milestone attainment, significant communication and speech difficulties, and a possible lack of engagement (rather than curiosity) in their surroundings.
People with severe learning difficulties in adulthood will often be unable to live and travel independently. However, supporting students at school and providing them with as much educational support as possible will help ensure a good quality of life later on.
Moderate Learning Difficulties (MLD)
Students with MLD may or may not be part of a mainstream school environment. Depending on their needs, they may require a specialist setting. They will have difficulties with general aspects of learning and do not learn at the same pace as their peers. Often students with MLD need more tuition and a great deal of support, often in a 1:1 setting where appropriate.
Students with MLD are considered to have a more global developmental delay that could be innate or caused by medical or environmental factors. A lack of sufficient oxygen at birth can cause learning difficulties, including MLD. A student with MLD may not be as easily identified as someone with more severe special needs.
Dyslexia
Dyslexia is a difficulty which affects a child’s ability to read and write. Students with dyslexia can have barriers in information processing, like working memory, rapid naming and phonological processing.
Dyslexia is a common specific learning difficulty that sometimes presents itself early in a person’s life, but which is often diagnosed with the growing demands of the school curriculum, or indeed when the person becomes an adult.
Multi-sensory and ‘one at a time’ learning strategies with built-in processing time are often the most effective ways of teaching and learning. However, as dyslexia is a ‘specific’ learning difficulty, the emphasis must be on the way each individual learns best.
When a person is diagnosed with dyslexia by an educational psychologist or specialist dyslexia assessor, a profile with specific recommendations is produced and must be followed both in the school and – later on – the work environment.
Dyscalculia
Dyscalculia is another specific learning difficulty but, unlike dyslexia, which relates to language, dyscalculia is related to numbers. It creates a significant barrier to learning basic arithmetic facts as well as processing numbers. The individual will struggle with maths despite conventional teaching methods.
People with dyscalculia can have difficulties with estimation, counting backwards, reading or writing down numbers accurately or in the correct order, measurements and the perception of time and space.
There are fewer studies on dyscalculia, compared to dyslexia, so it is unclear exactly what causes it.
Students can be supported in the classroom by applying various adaptations to learning, such as assistive technology, repetition and allowing extra time.
Dysgraphia
Dysgraphia refers to a learning difficulty that affects a person’s ability to write. This is often caused by difficulties with motor skills, but it can also be related to problems with visual processing.
A student with this difficulty would create handwritten work that does not coincide with standards for proper letter formation, punctuation, the correct use of capital letters, legibility, speed and correct paper position.
Dysgraphia can sometimes be hard to diagnose because many people may have problems with writing but do not technically have this learning difficulty.
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterised by difficulties with attention, impulsivity and hyperactivity. ADHD is one of the most commonly diagnosed childhood disorders.
While the exact cause of ADHD is unknown, it is thought to be due to a combination of genetic and environmental factors. Children with ADHD often have difficulty in school and in social situations, and they may also be at increased risk for developing other mental health conditions such as anxiety and depression.
In the absence of proper identification, followed by treatment and management, ADHD can have serious implications later on in life. It is a lifelong condition, but, with proper medication and therapy, can be reduced in its severity.
Brain Injury
A brain injury is any damage to the brain which can result in disability. It can occur when the head hits an object, when an object penetrates the skull, or when the brain is deprived of oxygen.
Brain injuries can be mild, moderate, or severe, and they can cause problems with concentration, memory, and learning new information. They can also make it difficult to process information correctly and solve problems.
There are a number of ways to manage these difficulties, including using memory aids and structuring the individual’s time.
Other difficulties
Students with autism and Down syndrome also need to be supported in the classroom.
As previously discussed, autism is a neurological disorder that affects a person’s social interaction and communication skills.
Down syndrome is a genetic disorder that causes physical and intellectual developmental delays.
Whatever learning difficulty or condition a student has, it is important to get accurate information about both the difficulty and the individual. With the right information, you can better understand and support students with their learning.
Fact
One-third of autistic people also have a learning disability.
Source: autism.org.uk
10.5 Addressing the Difficulties
While you cannot teach all your students the same because of their varying needs, there are a number of strategies that you can apply in a special needs classroom.
Teaching Strategies for Cognitive Impairments
Strategies for assisting students with cognitive impairments often utilise the concept of a constructivist learning environment, in which the student self-evaluates where they are struggling and where they are succeeding. This independence should only be applied to students who have the relevant ability.
Some suggested teaching strategies are as follows:
· Encourage metacognitive self-monitoring strategies among your students – have them set goals to complete curriculum activities and assignments and evaluate what went well and why, as opposed to any difficulties
· Colour associate the steps of problem-solving – generally, colour coding the steps towards a result is a good way to encourage and develop student memory
· Provide your students with lessons that are supported with other stimuli – kinetic, visual and auditory – so that they can all have similar success in your learning environment
· Allow students to have the opportunity to “reteach” lessons through group work and other cooperative learning techniques
· Allow processing time
· Structure lessons so that students are not overloaded
· Avoid giving too many instructions at once. Always write down instructions as well as give them verbally if they are crucial to homework or an important concept in the class
· Give students scaffolding tasks
· Give interactive handouts rather than expect students to take notes. Many students with literacy difficulties will waste time worrying about spelling and miss the overarching ideas or skills they are trying to note down.
· Encourage students to use assistive technology such as recording apps which produce text from dictated or recorded information, screen-reading or speech-to-text programs (these are often good for dyslexic students)
· Teach your students to use techniques that include self-reflection and metacognition
· Use diagrams, maps and patterns to illustrate to students how to connect ideas and concepts
· Allow your students to have time to practise real-life application of the curriculum
· Use acronyms and other word association techniques to help students build their memory of words and phrases
· Depending on the child’s age, ask your students how they learn best – what works for them and what does not. Even young children may be able to give you insight into their learning.
· Always plan lessons with differentiation in mind, whether this is by activity, level or outcome
These strategies can be augmented and adapted as necessary. The key, though, is to present your students with opportunities to explore their own learning methods.
Your creativity can be tested here – invent new ways to adapt lessons, and work together with your students to create the most successful learning environment for everyone.
Conclusion
In this module, you learnt about cognitive development and the different stages.
You now understand the different types of cognitive needs/difficulties and understand how you can be proactive in addressing them in the classroom through differentiated teaching and learning strategies.
This awareness and knowledge now give you the power and mindfulness to help your students develop and progress.
In the next module, we discuss speech, language, and common communication issues.
WELL DONE!
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